Cruz, Virgil Ambrose. The Mark of the Beast: A Study of the ΧΑΡΑΓΜΑ [CHARAGMA] in the Apocalypse. Amsterdam: Academische Pers N. V., 1973. 153 pp.

This thesis is a very important, but also quite neglected study. Cruz carefully surveys how the mark of the beast is used in Revelation.

One of the most debated issues is the earth beast’s mark, to charagma (Rev 13:16-17; 14:9, 11; 15:2; 16:2; 19:20; 20:4). The number of its name is given as six hundred and sixty-six (Rev 13:18). The interest in the imagery of the mark has not been comparable to the interest in the number. The only extensive investigation seems to be Virgil Ambrose Cruz’s The Mark of the Beast from 1973.

Cruz analyses four aspects, namely the question of who gives the mark, the issues of the bestowal and the reception or rejection of it, the facet of the place of the mark, and, finally, the parallels to the mark. He completes his study with a discussion of all the passages in which the charagma imagery occurs.

Cruz concludes that the mark constitutes a magnitude of threat, and that it is “the mark of God’s arch adversary, the anti-God force”, wherefore the recipients are “stigmatized as [the adversary's] followers, hence, similarly as opponents of God”. He asserts that it “becomes in its own right an enemy to be conquered by God’s people (15:2)” and “a symbol of evil” (p. 131).The mark should be understood as symbols, which nevertheless point to realities in the world (p. 132).

Cruz concludes that the charagma is “whatever decisively indicates that a man is allied with the anti-God force” and that it earns its bearers the wrath of God (p. 132).

Cruz’s analysis is a major achievement in that he pays attention to the narrative use of this motif. The mark is clearly described as a contrasting parallel to the seal of God, as is shown by the location of the seal and the mark, by the agents of this act, by the behaviour, and by the final outcome (cf. also pp. 86-100).

As regards the location, both the seal of God and the mark of the beast are to be placed on the forehead (7:3; 13:16), although the latter may also be put on the (right) hand (13:16; 14:9; 20:4) (p. 79).[1] V. A. Cruz argues that the wearing of the charagma on the forehead or the right hand is “tantamount to making a fully public confession of faith in and acceptance of the authority of the forces which are diametrically opposed to God”.[2]

With regard to the agents, the servants of God are marked by angels (7:3), probably indicating that they are approved as servants.[3]

As regards the force behind, it is explicitly said that the beast is behind the marking with the charagma (cf. kai poiei in 13:16) (pp. 7f), while it is only implied that it is God who gave order to the sealing of his servants (7:2f).[4]

As far as the behaviour is concerned, there is a clear distinction between those who dwell on the earth and the servants of God.[5] On the one hand, the whole earth follows the beast (13:3) and worships the dragon and the beast (13:4 cf. 13:8), prompted by the second beast (13:12).[6] Their names are not written in the book of life (13:8). On the other hand, the saints against whom the beast makes war (13:7) even let themselves be killed rather than worship the beast (13:15) (cf. also pp. 58-63).

As for the outcome, the two groups are quite contrastive. Those who are killed will be raised and reign together with Christ for ‘a thousand years’ (20:4) indeed forever (22:5), while those who worship the beast and receive its mark will suffer the wrath and torment of God (14:10), in fact also forever (14:11).[7]

^[4] Cruz argues, however, that “the words sphragida theou zôntos explicitly point to God as the authority behind its bestowal” (p. 87).

^[5] See pp. 56-8 for a description of the recipients of the mark of the beast.

^[6] Cruz argues that the reason why the bearers worship and receive the mark was not that it was imposed “irresistibly”, but that they were prompted to do so by the great signs, the threat of death sentence and by economic sanctions. He therefore concludes that “the bestowal of the ca,ragma is not to be taken for granted in every individual case but depends rather upon the success of the variously expressed enticements and pressures to conform” (V. A. Cruz 1973, 56).

^[7] Cf. also pp. 58. However, Cruz interprets Revelation 13 as a description of non-parousian circumstances and claims that the recipients of the mark of the beast receives “approval, membership in the cult (13:12) and exemption from economic and political sanctions applied against recalcitrants” from the dragon and the two beasts (ibid.).

Riddlebarger, Kim. The Man of Sin: Uncovering the Truth About the Antichrist. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 2006. 236 pp.

Includes a chapter on “The dragon, the beast, and the false prophet: the doctrine of Antichrist in the Book of Revelation” (pp. 89-116).

The back matters include a 8 page bibliography and indices of Scripture and Subjects. See more at Amazon.com and BakerBooks.com.

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Bauckham, Richard: The Climax of Prophecy. Studies on the Book of Revelation. Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1993. xviii + 550 pp.

This book is closely connected with Bauckham’s Theology and sometimes provides the arguments or more detailed arguments to the views in The Theology, sometimes extends or develops arguments in depth. Bauckham knows other ancient sources as well as contemporary research very well.

No short review can do justice to this book. Bauckham’s essays are important, regardless of whether you agree or disagree.

After a short introduction, Bauckham analyses the structure and composition of Revelation (ch. 1, pp. 1-37). Bauckham argues that Revelation is designed for reading, which means that the structural markers must be aurally (cf. Barr, Apocalypse as Oral Enactment). Among the most important aurally structural markers are the numbers. In my opinion, this is a very important insight.

In chs. 2 and 3, Bauckham examines the use of apocalyptic traditions (pp. 38-91) and the relationship between the synoptic parousia parables and Revelation (pp. 92-117).

In ch. 4 and 5, Bauckham discusses the worship of Jesus (pp. 118-149) and the role of the Spirit (pp. 150-173).

Ch. 6 is devoted to a study of the Lion, the Lamb and the Dragon (pp. 174-198).

Ch. 7 focuses on one of the important minor themes: the eschatological earthquake (pp. 199-209).

Ch. 8 deals with Revelation as a Christ War Scroll (pp. 210-237).

Ch. 9 is the longest chapter, 99 pages. It studies the Conversion of the Nations (pp. 238-337). The chapter is critiqued in Herms, Apocalypse.

Ch. 10 argues that Revelation 18 is an economic critique of Rome (pp. 338-383).

Ch. 11 studies the theme: Nero and the Beast (pp. 384-452). To my knowledge, it is the longest and, in any case, the most erudite and comprehensive argument for the view that John makes use of the legends of Nero’s return, and that the number and name of the beast is Nero.

The back matter includes a list of abbreviations (pp. 453-462), a 29 page bibliography (pp. 463-492) and indices of passages cited, ancient persons and places, and modern authors (pp. 493-550).

Bauckham’s Climax is already a classic work and will remain so for a long time.

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